Kant Theory and Justice

Immanuel Kant concerns himself with deontology, and as a deontologist, he believes that the rightness of an action depends in part on things other than the goodness of its consequences, and so, actions should be judged based on an intrinsic moral law that says whether the action is right or wrong – period. Kant introduced the Categorical Imperative which is the central philosophy of his theory of morality, and an understandable approach to this moral law. It is divided into three formulations. The first formulation of Kant’s Categorical Imperative states that one should â€Å"always act in such a way that the maxim of your action can be willed as a universal law of humanity†; an act is either right or wrong based on its ability to be universalized. This belief is part of the â€Å"universal law theory† and states that to determine if an action is essentially â€Å"good† or â€Å"bad,† one must essentially imagine a world in which everyone performed that same action constantly, and imagine if this would be a desirable world to live in. If not, then it is not okay to perform the action. He believes that this â€Å"universal law† lives within us; it is not something that is imposed on us from the outside. For example if one kills oneself out of self-love, it is logically contradictory because self-love refers to respect for one’s self as a rational being and rationality is based on objective (undistorted by emotion or personal bias). So, one can never justify suicide. The maxim of killing oneself cannot possibly exist as a universal law. The second formulation states that one must â€Å"treat humanity whether in thine own person or in that of any other, in every case as an end withal, never as means only. For example, if I were to lie to a girl so that she would choose to go out with me then I, in effect, use her. Kant would say that I treated her as a means to achieve my end, and he specifically prohibits manipulating or deceiving a person for the purposes of achieving a personal end. According to Kant, only people are valuable as ends. Any action tha t disregards this is in clear violation of Kantian morality, and purports to reduce an individual’s autonomy; this consequently undermines a person’s rational capability and reduces him/her to a thing. This implies that if someone robs you and takes your wallet, he is treating you as a thing and not as a person. The third and last formulation requires that one sees oneself as the source of all moral law. This simply emphasizes the fact that the moral agent is the one who chooses to act morally. This third formulation tells us to imagine ourselves as the sole lawmaker in a society, and to choose the best possible set of laws that the society of rational beings would live by. Kant believes that we all have reason within us, but some choose to respond and act upon it while others do not. We can reason the way things ought to be, and based on that is how we should act, which explains Kant’s view that a moral action must be chosen through moral reason. For example, one does not cheat on a test because one’s reason tells him or her that it is wrong, not the consequences that follow if one gets caught. Another example is that we do not need the law to tell us not to steal because it is immoral; we simply have to access our ability to reason to rationalize this. In a world where each individual recognizes his/her moral dignity and freely chooses to adopt the same universalizable moral law, all actions become good. In opposition to the Categorical Imperative is Kant’s Hypothetical Imperative, which states that a particular action is necessary as a means to some purpose. Kant believes that these actions are not always moral because they are not performed out of â€Å"pure good will† (pure duty), which is the only thing in the world that is unambiguously good. In the case of the ethical credibility of the principles of affirmative action, Kant’s Categorical Imperative provides for the basis of approval. It is primarily out of a sense of duty that a society would seek to assist its struggling members who are in need of help. The action so far seems good, but we must test its universality. Can we imagine ourselves living in a world in which all societies seek to aid the underprivileged and the disadvantaged at the slight expense of others? Absolutely yes. It is important for one to bear in mind, however, that it is the very action of helping that is being judged as inherently good or bad, and not the action’s admirable or overbearing surrounding consequences. Secondly, we must test that the action is regarding everyone involved as ends and not as means to any particular purpose. Since the aim of affirmative action is to help the current predicaments of those people who were victimized in the past, focus is placed on respecting every individual’s autonomy. In this way, we can see that affirmative action is not a devious plan that seeks to manipulate, but one that seeks to compensate by adjusting the means (circumstances) and not the ends (individuals). Lastly, we must see if the action is establishing a universal law governing others in similar situations; one should behave as if one is the absolute moral authority of the universe. Is completing this action consistent with the application of moral law? If so, the affirmative action passes these three tests and the action is good. In his â€Å"Objections to Affirmative Action†, James Sterba talks about why he believes that Affirmative Action is morally wrong. He argues that a person’s race shouldn’t control his or her point of interest. Sterba argues that Affirmative Action leads to injustice and it is unfair to the white nonminority males because â€Å"it deprives them of equal opportunity by selecting or appointing women or minority candidates over more qualified nonminority male candidates. He believes that the job of the government is to eliminate all kinds of discriminatory policies. He thinks that â€Å"alternative programs are preferable. † Thus, the government should instead promote equal opportunities through programs within agencies and departments instead of through Affirmative Action which he believes is a fancy word for discrimination. He argues that it is not fair to those who are more qualified for certain opportunities and cannot receive them either because they are not women or because they are not part of the minority. In his First Objection, he argues that Affirmative Action â€Å"is not required to compensate for unjust institutions in the distant past. † He talks about Morris’ argument that what occurred in the past is not the primary issue that puts all present-day African Americans at an unfair disadvantage; it is more about the issues of more recent origin. He makes a point that discrimination today could very well be the source of the disadvantaged disposition of African Americans and other minority groups, and it is certainly something that society could do without. The question remains that in attempting to â€Å"level the playing field† and eliminate present-day discrimination in America, is Affirmative Action a practical approach and should such a program be endorsed? The Fourth Objection goes on to say that Affirmative Action â€Å"hurts those who receive it† because in many ways the people benefitting from it would not see the need to work as hard, and it places â€Å"women and minorities in positions for which they are not qualified. Sterba proposes that one of the solutions to this problem could be the installation education enhancement programs to compensate for any lack of skills. He believes that this will in a short time ensure that minorities are appropriately qualified for a position. In response to Sterba’s First Objection, Kant would agree that the rightness of Affirmative Action should be based upon the circumstances of the present situation and not what had occurred in the past; this is evident mainly through his a priori form of philosophical deductive reasoning that judges an action before the experience, or â€Å"in the moment. However, Kant would disagree with Sterba’s Fourth Objection because in my opinion, Kant’s deontological theory correlates with the correctness of the affirmative action in its very aim toward helping â€Å"the right† people. Affirmative action has not significantly diminished gender, racial, and all other forms of discrimination, but the action has promoted equality and diversity to a large extent. In a world where everyone performs the â€Å"good will,† there is justice; and the installation of this program only serves to come closer to this justice. Discrimination is wrong because it violates a person’s basic and intrinsic moral rights. Thus, in itself the adoption of this program is an action that is good because without Affirmative Action it is true in many ways that minorities would remain at a disadvantaged position in the educational system and not be allowed the opportunity to exercise their true potential. Kant would argue that it is a duty out of â€Å"good will† to treat people equally. The concepts of equality and autonomy are emphasized in the nature of this program because it strives to treat everyone as a free person equal to everyone else. According to Kant, one should be treated as ends not as mere means. It can be argued that African Americans at a disadvantaged position were being treated as means by the dominant culture to achieve its own ends in the system. Discrimination cannot exist as a system of nature because those who discriminate would not want to be similarly discriminated against if things were reversed, and so Affirmative Action is justified because it aims to open the door of opportunities to those who have been oppressed for years. That being said, Kant would examine the action itself and not the consequences of the action. When making decisions, one has to put oneself into other people’s shoes and see if one wants to be treated the same way others have been treated; it is a duty to treat others as we ourselves want to be treated. Affirmative Action not necessarily needed in this society to reduce the inherent inequalities that are still existent, but it can certainly be used to assist in leveling the playing field. Affirmative Action has been successful on a short term basis, that is, in ncreasing the representation of minorities (including women) in areas of employment, education, and business from which they have been historically excluded. However, on the long term basis it can be argued that the program only serves to perpetuate a cycle of need. Kant advocates the idea of equality through his deontological theory by saying that all people deserve equal treatment as rational ends in themselves and th at this should never be compromised by the flaws in any social system.

Jackass: Comedy and People

Imagine you are up late one night watching television, and you come across the MTV channel and you start to watch a show where a man is slamming himself to a wall, and then you see another clip where a man is dancing around naked in the street, then you must be watching Jackass. Jackass is a show where people perform dangerous, hilarious, disgusting stunts and pranks, but simply the show is made to make people laugh. The show is really simply comedic, but since the show includes many dangerous stunts and activities, the show receives negative criticism for being the blame for certain accidents where teenagers tried to imitate the show. Even though the show has received a lot negative criticism, the show was still able to maintain its popularity because we have a dark sense of humor, we seek some sort of thrill, and it makes us feel superior to people on the show. Most of us have shown to have a dark sense of humor and we enjoy watching television shows like Jackass. The stunts and pranks performed on the show are cruel and most of the time people performing the stunts end up getting hurt, but we still laugh. Even looking at history, we can see that people have always has a dark sense of humor, like in Roman Empire era when people would fight to the death for other people’s entertainment. Then, we moved from trying to kill each other for entertainment to have animals fight for our entertainment, and now we have television and movies to help feed our craving for dark humor. In Stephen King’s essay, â€Å"Why We Crave Horror Movies†, Stephen explains that a horror movie â€Å"†¦deliberately appeals to all that is worst in us. It is morbidly unchained, our most base instincts set free, our nastiest fantasies realized†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Page 2). Just like a horror movie, shows like Jackass appeals to the worst in us and helps us to take control our dark sense of humor. Jackass is probably still one of the most disgusting and daring show on air and we find it thrilling to watch because for that reason. The shows intensity and excess makes us either want to look away or watch even more. On the show, they go as far as artificially inseminating a cow, swallowing a live fish and throwing it up later, flipping over a port-a-potty while someone is inside, diving into a pool full of elephant feces, and even more ridiculous stunts. The stunts on the show aren’t something that people do on a daily basis and people find it thrilling to watch others try something that hasn’t been done. Some of us would probably want to know what it is like to do some of the stunts seen on the show, but we are too afraid to try. The show help us to see what would have happened if we were to try a stunt seen on the show. The pranks done in the show are truly cruel and unnecessary and in some way makes us happy it isn’t us and makes us feel superior to the people on the show. On the show, someone walks around with an electric razor and randomly cuts out patches on people’s hair, also people on the show go off-roading in golf carts. Even though the show has a warning not to try anything seen on the show at home, most of us know better than to go ice skating naked and makes people laugh to know that there is someone out there stupid enough to try it. Just the watching the people on show, it makes us feel that we are better than them; somewhat feeds to our ego to know that there are others who less incompetent than us.

Carbon Steel 1040 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Carbon Steel 1040 - Essay Example The delivery times taken by the mills ranges between 10 and 50 weeks after the placement of order depending upon the form and size of steel required. Carbon Steels 1040 is primarily stocked by 12 distributors in Bar Products, though it is also, to some extent, available in tubular products, wire products, fasteners, forging products, and flat rolled products. The principle design feature of Carbon Steels 1040 includes its higher carbon content i.e. 0.4 per cent that lends it more strength as compared to the lower alloys of carbon (â€Å"Carbon Steels 1040†). Carbon Steels 1040 are given heat treatment to make them hard. They are quenched and tempered so that a tensile strength from 150 ksi to 250 ksi can be developed in them (â€Å"Carbon Steels 1040†). It has good machinability since it is rated at 60 per cent machinability given by the 1112 alloy that is employed as 100 per cent rated steel for machining (â€Å"Carbon Steels 1040†). Carbon Steels 1040 forming gets quickly accomplished in the annealed condition. It can be welded using any method of welding. However, its higher content of carbon imparts the need to use pre-heat and post-heat practice at 300 to 500 F and 1100 to 1200 F respectively according to a verified procedure of welding. Carbon Steels 1040 show good response to the hardening at 1550 to 1650 F achieved by heat treatment when the heating is followed by water quench as well as tempering (â€Å"Carbon Steels 1040†). This helps attain the desired level of strength in the steel. One problem with Carbon Steels 1040 is that the higher carbon content makes it very brittle and hard. Increased carbon affects the temperature where the forming of martensite commences (see fig.1.). At lower temperature, steel is less plastic and not very capable of accommodating the changes in volume linked with the changing to martensite. Increased brittleness in the steel subjects it to cracking and distortion. However, increased concentration on the materials that

Portfolio to answers to four of the following questions Essay

Portfolio to answers to four of the following questions - Essay Example In some instances, the laws have mandated ethical conduct. For example, ethical conduct is vital for application of laws affecting employees, the federal regulations and the code of ethics. However, the law does not prohibit most of the acts that would have otherwise been condemned to be unethical, and vice versa. The law prohibits acts of some groups of people and, therefore, when organizing for an event it is relevant to do a background check on the laws that impact the industry. For instance, there are several laws that have been enacted to protect employees in the events industry against poor perception by the society (Knight, 2009, pp 108). These laws are protected by the department of Labor in the United States, and they directly affect the standards of the better part of the society. The events, planning and catering companies have set their own business code of ethics for their organization. Majority of the private companies and organizations in most of the instances establis h their own codes of ethics. These laws are written in a manner that can be understood easily. Although the government does not enforce the codes, the laws are enforced internally at the organization. The violation of the laws can lead to termination of the contract. However, some of believers of the company may not be perceived as ethical. For example, the corporate dress code is not defined by the ethical law as it is in the company’s code of ethics to determine the appropriate choice for their dress code. Sustainability has been on the rise in both its scope and use amongst the corporations for the past 25 years. There is a mounting pressure for companies to regulate the social and environmental impact of the events they organize. It is critical, therefore, to apply sustainability indicators to the events industry. Mitigations in place vary since companies differ widely. This is because events are unique, and occur in singular occurrences. These occurrences involve huge us es of resources that have to be managed over a relatively fixed period of time (Cook, 2009, pp 99). In addition, resources for facilitation of events require the acquisition and management in a temporal manner, which has huge impacts on the upstream effects on the availability of the suppliers as there is a limited time to earn the suppliers trust. Events are site specific and not operational specific. Therefore, events planners have a huge task of management of the resources. However, like other businesses, the events industry spans different sectors, which demand the implementation of guidelines to manage. Sustainability in the events companies falls under the categories of communication, food and beverages, procurement of the services, transportation and waste management. The events industry is regulated by the marketing and creativity strategies. Some of the clients budgets maybe big enough to accomplish their need effectively. It is relevant to do competitive analysis as the ev ent planning market is fierce: depending on the target of the corporate market. 4. Contract and agency laws Charity events form significant events organized in renowned hotels. The organization of the events involves a lot of planning and coordination to ensure that all the activities work hand in hand as suggested by the contract (Cook, 2009, pp 101). The contract sets out the details in clear terms. It also gives each of the party’

The use of criminal law in relation to insider dealing in the United Essay

The use of criminal law in relation to insider dealing in the United Kingdom is both draconian and unnecessary. Discuss - Essay Example The proposed criminal laws purport that the act is unfair since an investor who has inside information is highly likely to make more profits as compared to a typical investor. Other scholars claim that unauthorised insider trading tends to increase the cost of capital on the issuers of securities; hence, reducing economic growth (Alexander 2007, pp. 229-230). However, it is undoubtedly that though the set criminal laws are meant to help the investors and ensure economic success, they are unnecessary, draconian, and obviously counter-intuitive. Wagner (2011, pp. 974-975) asserts that the criminal laws are extreme and there is a need to legalise insider dealings to benefit the markets, ensure more transparency, reduce accounting fraud, and act on timely and factual information. Various scholars posit that criminal laws regarding insider trading in the UK are unnecessary and are a burden to some market participants. This is because though such trading has been illegal since the year 1980, it has always been difficult to effectively prosecute persons who have been accused of such dealings. In most cases, the suspects are able to escape arrest or prosecution; thus, the regulators often rely on fines to punish those who are found abusing the market. It is unfortunate though that the fines have always been perceived as inefficient since the perpetrators are able to walk scot-free since they have the necessary resources to cover their fines. In that case, this only increases the rate of misconduct; making the set laws redundant (Ferran 2004, pp. 44-45). The number of insider dealing cases by the Financial Conduct Authority in the UK has heightened in the past years. Since the year 2009 to 2013, there have been roughly 23 convictions. For instance, in 2009, Christian Littlewood who was a corporate financier and an insider trader was sentenced to three years and four months in jail. It was believed that the gross profit accumulated from his

Product Description Target Market Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Product Description Target Market - Assignment Example This discussion declares that  coffee is a renowned drink globally, and most of the consumers range from young teenagers to the old generation. People are addicted to coffee for not only its taste, but also the fact that caffeine is known to escalate the energy levels. It contains a stimulant making it the most popular consumed psychoactive drink in the world. Study shows that coffee burns out fat lowers risk of diseases and that it drastically improves physical performance.  From this paper it is clear that Starbucks has very high chances of opening broader markets globally based on its current activities that motivate its consumers. Notably, being the dominant coffee house globally, Starbucks has been at the verge of has tried to balance its profits with the socially conscious. This has been shown in the manner that they have handled community services. With globalization, one would think that Starbucks has lost touch with individuals in the society. However, they ensure that b efore entering any neighborhood, they have to contribute in their society to earn the trust. This includes helping in community organizations mostly through volunteer jobs. This company participates in fundraisers and other community services meaning that it is contributing by giving back to the society as a way of getting to its consumers.  Other than providing jobs to the society, it has also engaged the youth in community services, which is a great motivation to the society, and a great way to reach the consumers.

Developing Strategic Thinking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Developing Strategic Thinking - Essay Example The major competition came with the advent and enhancements of Google as it took the major chunk of the market share from Google, with its ever innovative stance towards its competition and Google did give a tough time to Yahoo. The biggest competition came with the innovative features and benefits that Google mail provided, compared to Yahoo mail. However, after suffering and losing its market share to Google, Yahoo began its revamping projects and today is doing quite well, in the existing competitive arena. Yahoo can actually be translated to be called as a SMART company2. SMART stands for Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Timed3 – SMART objectives seek to define the future of a business alongside control. These are defined to mark long-term objectives and long-term goals of an organization. Yahoo or any other business would only be defined as SMART if it corporate these towards its strategic objectives. Fundamentally, this implies that the goals are precisely stated (specific), quantifiable (measurable) so easy to compare the achievement level, realizable (achievable) in terms of the possibility to attain them, practical (realistic) in viability, and specifically having a time horizon (timed) associated to it4. The business that sets its strategic goals using this benchmark is considered to be a SMART company. When it comes to the information technology-oriented structure of the industry such as the one in which Yahoo prevails, the significance of applying SMART objectives increases drastically, mainly because such industries are ever changing with drastic changes coming in, the out of the box ideas bringing in extreme changes overnight.  Assuming the example of Bill Gates who aimed at having a computer on palms of every user, and palm-tops has gained the momentum in sales today.

Leadership Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Leadership - Coursework Example The key techniques used for developing / improving leadership using theatre and improvisational exercises (for improving and enhancing communication styles); improving and ensuring greater presence (such as increased focus during business presentations, meetings with clients and /or colleagues etc.); using expressive capabilities; and developing and enhancing the art of communicating with the audience (both individuals as well as groups). The article "Choosing strategies for change" presented by Sharon Hill, on the other hand stresses on the significance of managing change within organizations and the various issues faced while initiating new order of things. The article suggests that in order to ensure successful change management within organizations it is imperative to ensure involvement of all employees in the key activities or planning process, since they are the most likely to resist change. Secondly, the article emphasizes on developing strategies specially centered on the type of challenges / resistance likely to be encountered while initiating the change, such as offer training workshops for skill development to the employees. Lastly, one of the most effective ways of initiating the process of change within organizations is taking into consideration the situational factors. This can be achieved by responding to imminent crises situations quickly (Kotter & Schlesinger, 2008). Key techniques used for successful change management include: education (educating the employees), participation (ensuring greater participation of those most likely to resist change), facilitation (offer skills training and workshop), negotiation (offer incentives to influence them to change), and coercion (use threats such as loss of job, promotion or transfer to those resisting the change). 2. Managing change is one of the most difficult and

Teachers Day Essay Example for Free

Teachers Day Essay On the 22nd of October 2012, PSC held its annual Teacher’s Day. The Supreme Student Council was the reason behind this program, and in fact, they did a job well done. As the MC of the program, it was a blast to see everyone smiling and it was grateful to know that everyone had fun, especially the teachers. The quadrangle was literally crowded with students who wanted to greet and spend the day with their beloved teachers. The program started off with a prayer and a speech from the Supreme Student Council’s president, and was topped off with a dance number from the Grade 6. The teachers were called one by one after, and were given gifts from the SSC and of course, their students. They were also given a chance to take photos with their students. Some students even presented a song number for the teachers, while the others preferred to give a simple gift. First up was the teachers from the pre-school department, we had a hard time with the children since we had to take them up to the stage, but we eventually made it through. Next was the teachers from the elementary department, the students were so sweet, some would just run up to the stage and hug their teachers. Last but not the least, the teachers from the high school department. The high school students put a lot of effort into their gifts; it just proves how much they love their teachers. The teachers were also given a chance to showcase their talents, whether it was at singing or at dancing. It was nice to see, just for once, the other side of our teachers. Since it was Teacher’s Day, the teachers were given a break from their stressful job, and just enjoyed the show which was prepared by their students. The program ended with a song number from the Supreme Student Council. Once again, the program was a complete success thanks to the cooperation of the students, and of course the reason why we made this program; the teachers.

Identify the Differences Between a Cash Flow Statement and a Profit and Loss Account Essay Example for Free

Identify the Differences Between a Cash Flow Statement and a Profit and Loss Account Essay There is undoubtedly, a clear difference between what is termed â€Å"cash† and what â€Å"profit† is and by extension a cash flow statement and a profit and loss statements. Notwithstanding these differences, each statement gives a different yet important view of organisational performance. Cash according to Holmes et al 2005:166 is â€Å"cash in hand and deposits repayable on demand less overdrafts repayable on demand; i.e. they can be withdrawn at any time without penalty. Cash includes cash and deposits denominated in foreign currency. † Once, accounts were comprised of just the balance sheet and the profit and loss statements. However in the late 1960’s, a period characterised as a high inflationary period, it was felt that historical costing convention which is indicative of the profit and loss account, provided information that was outdated and as such provided little insight on the current market value of companies and by extensions their profits. Therefore, there became a need for an additional statement- the cash flow statement. â€Å"A cash flow statement is a statement produced either for management or external reporting purposes showing, by broad categories cash receipts and payments in a period† (Leicester, 2001. 10.3), and is intended to supplement the profit and loss account and the balance sheet. The cash flow statement therefore, assists creditors, investors and generally all stakeholders in evaluating the liquidity and solvency of a business or rather, shows changes in cash be it negative or positive i.e. cash outflows and cash inflows. The Cash flow statement is divided into three main sections: 1.Core operations (operating activities) 2.Investing 3.Financing A typical cash flow statement can be seen in Appendix B. Cash flows from operating activities generally include transactions that are associated with the calculation of income. It also includes items which are involved in the production or purchase of merchandise, the sale of good and/or services to the organisation’s customers and expenditure relating to the general administration of a business. Under the broad heading of investing activities, are found important element relating to cash flow in an organisation. These transactions involve making and collecting repayments on loans, purchasing and selling of plant assets and other productive assets. All other investment activities are generally classified under this heading. â€Å"Changes in debt, loans or dividends are accounted for in cash from financing. Changes in cash from financing are ‘cash in’ when capital is raised they’re ‘cash out’ when dividends are paid. Thus if a company issues a bond to the public, the company receives cash financing. However, when interest is paid to bondholders, the company is reducing its cash.† (Heakal, 2004) It is now important that the issue of profit and the profit and loss account be examined. Profit by definition is the excess of revenue over expenditure. Revenues are increases in the company’s assets from its profit-driven activities, resulting in positive cash flows (inflows). Conversely, expenses are decreases in the company’s assets from its profit-driven activities, which results in negative cash flows (outflows). Net income/profit is therefore, the difference between the two. According to Williams et al 2002:54 if a company’s expenditure exceeds income then the difference is a net loss, suggesting that the enterprise has suffered a loss. Alternatively if the company’s income exceeds its expenditure the difference is a net profit. â€Å"The profit and loss account is a financial statement which shows the profit (loss) made by a business during a defined period of time (normally one year). The account also shows the uses to which the profit has been put (or how losses were financed).† (Jewel 1998:327) Sometimes referred to as the revenue account, the profit and loss statement is divided into four parts: 1.How the profit (loss) was earned 2.The expenditure for the period under review 3.How much was taken by taxation 4.What happened to the profit (or loss) that was left after taxation Appendix A shows a typical profit and loss account. It is a truism that a business must make a profit in order to be successful. This is imperative since profits are needed to pay out dividends to shareholders in the case of a company and to reward partners of proprietors in the case of a sole trader or a partnership. Irrespective of the form of business organisation, â€Å"some profits are retained within the business as reserves or as proprietor’s funds, to finance the development and growth of the business† (Leicester 2001, 3.45). Consequently, although a business can experience occasional losses, it is imperative that it be profitable in the long run. A loss signifies that the value of resources used up in a period to generate sales/revenue is more than the sales/revenue generated in that period. These lose as a result, cause a reduction in the overall value of a business and can eventually lead to the collapse/liquidation of the organisation. When an organisation publishes its profit and loss accounts and a profit is shown, users of the statements may think that the business has â€Å"cash† and in turn expect different benefits. The Shareholders for example, might believe that if the company makes a profit after tax of say $200,000 then the company is in a position to pay out dividends. Similarly, employees might believe that the company can afford an increase in wages in the subsequent year. The fact is â€Å"profit does not always give a useful or meaningful picture of a company’s operations. Readers of a company’s financial statements might even be misled by a reported profit figure† (ACCA, paper 1. 1 Study text June 2003, 360). The fact is that profit does not necessarily mean an increase in cash. For example, an oil company on presenting its final accounts may show a large profit figure primarily because of large amounts of stock which it holds. Although the company may be profitable, it may be experiencing serious cash flow problems. Too much stock therefore according to many writers is tied-up cash and should be avoided as much as possible. Cash therefore according to Larson and Miller 1992:726 â€Å"is the lifeblood of a business enterprise. In a sense, cash is the fuel that keeps a business alive. With cash, employees and suppliers can be paid, loans can be repaid and owners receive dividends. Without cash, none of these things can happen. In simple terms, a business must have adequate amounts of cash to operate.† Hence, profits/losses shown by the profit and loss account and net cash inflow/outflow shown by the cash flow statement do not represent the same thing. Therefore, when businesses are profitable, which is a long-term requirement; it must pay in cash, its goods and services, capital equipment, the workforce and for that matter, all expenses incurred in the line of the business’ operation. If cash is not available to pay these expenses when the fall due, the business will slowly lose its goodwill, employees, suppliers and it will be forced into liquidation as was previously suggested. 1.If a non-current asset is purchased an outflow of the full amount is shown under Investing Activities in the cash flow statement for that period but only depreciation, which is part of the cost of that asset, is shown in the profit and loss account. This depreciation amount is not shown in the cash flow statement since it is not an actual movement of cash. The profit and loss statement therefore, attempts to spread the cost of the assets over its estimated useful life by a depreciation charge every year until it is expensed. By so doing the cost of the asset is not absorbed in the accounts in one year as is done by the cash flow statement, but over a period of time. 2.When shares are issued and cash is received from the sale, the cash flow statement will show this as a source of cash i.e. a cash flow under Financing Activities but this transaction does not have any effect on the profit and loss account. Similarly, if a loan is obtained, this is reflected as a cash inflow under financing activities but has no effect on the profit and loss account until subsequent interest charges have been made then it is shown. The same is also applicable for businesses which enjoy the overdraft facilities accorded to them by commercial banks. 3.After the sale of a non-current asset the profit or loss which is the difference between the sale price and the net book value of the asset is recorded in the profit and loss account while the entire proceeds is recorded in the cash flow statement as an increase in cash inflow under investing activities. Thus, while the cash flow statement shows inflow of cash, the profit and loss account may show a loss on disposal of the non-current asset simply because the asset was sold less than the net book value consequently representing a loss which the company has made. 4.The profit and loss account reports the total value of sale in a year less the cost of sales (â€Å"the costs directly associated with making or acquiring your products. Costs include material purchased from outside suppliers used in the manufacture of your product, as well as any internal expenses directly expended in the manufacturing process.†BusinessTown.com 2003) which is profit. Operational cash flow is the difference between cash received and cash paid from trading. If there are credit sales (receivables), cash received will differ form the value of the sales and conversely cash paid will differ from the cost of sales if there are credit purchases (payables). The difference therefore, between sales and cash received is because of changes in the amount of debtors and the difference in cost of sales and cash is because of changes in the amount of creditors. It is worthy to note that operational cash flow in the cash flow statement differs from profit in the profit and loss account. Because business accounts are prepared on an accruals basis and not on a cash basis, a sale or purchase is accounted for in the year in which it was made even if cash is exchanged in subsequent years. This practice is exercised in most businesses who, if they do not sell on credit may purchase on credit and if cash accounting is used, the accounts would not represent a â€Å"true and fair picture† of the business activity in a given period. The accounting convention when used is an application of the accrual concept. Therefore there is recognition that while the profit and loss account is affected by the accrual concept, the cash flow statement is not as was previously stated. It should be noted also, that profit, which is shown in the profit and loss account (Net profit before taxes†¦Appendix A) is really a reflection of future cash for the company because the entries recorded are from transactions done based on the accruals concept. This can be illustrated by means of a cash flow statement done using the indirect method. Using the indirect method of preparing a cash flow statement, â€Å"net profit or loss is adjusted for the effects of transactions of a non-cash nature e.g. depreciation, any deferrals or accruals of past or future operating cash receipts or payments and of income or expense associated with investing or financing cash flows† (ACCA, paper 1.1 Study text June 2003, 365). Appendix A confirms that the net profit of $ 3,390 million reported in the profit and loss account after adjustments became $ 410 million, the same cash amount reported in the balance sheet in Appendix C, extract under current assets. Users of the profit and loss account therefore as was established earlier may be missed by the profit figure reported. However, cash reported in the cash flow statement is authentic and represents the actual liquid position of a business organisation as at the balance sheet date. There have been frequent arguments that profit does not give an authentic view of the organisation’s performance as has been established thus far. Since the making of a profit will not necessarily result in an increased cash balance, one can conclude that a company’s performance and prospects depends not so much on profits earned in the period but more realistically on cash flow or rather the company’s liquidity. Bearing this in mind, many investors now find the profit figure reported in the profit/loss account less reliable than the cash balance reported in the cash flow statement because it is felt that the profit figure can be manipulated to reflect the producer’s bias. This notion is supported by Joseph Bernardino former chief executive of Anderson quoted in The Economist. Bernardino argued that â€Å"our financial reporting system is broken† with â€Å"many investors now believing that companies can manipulate their accounts more or less at will, with the aim of producing profits that increase steadily over time. Provisions are bumped up in goods years and later released; or the value of an acquisition is slashed; there are plenty tricks. The solution in the meantime may be to look at the cash, which is harder to disguise or invent.† The cash flow statement is therefore, unambiguous and provides information which is additional to that already provided in the other final accounts. Additionally the cash flow statement provides information based on activity instead of by balance sheet classifications and shows changes in actual cash, thus, providing additional information over the balance sheet and profit and loss accounts. The dilemma as a result becomes fairly simple: there is cash or there is no cash. For this reason, the cash flow statement has several advantages which give shareholders and investors an idea as to how the funds of a company are being managed. These advantages include: 1.Cash flows allow for better comparisons and an understanding of various companies financial performance as it reports on how the cash was earned and spent as well as the reason for the difference between reported profit and related cash flows. 2.It allows for easier preparation of cash flow forecasts which is more useful than profit forecasts. 3.Cash flow reporting satisfies the needs of its users. It provides the information that enables management to make well informed decisions. It also assists shareholders with stewardship accounting while better serving the information needs of employees and creditors on the company’s liquidity status. 4.Cash flow is easily understood than profit which is based on accounting conventions and concepts such as: accruals convention or the matching concept and therefore, is easier for the layman to understand. 5.Creditors are more interested in a business’s ability to repay their debts than its profitability. Profits may indicate that cash may be available at later date, while cash flow suggests a direct view of the business’s cash situation i.e. how much money is readily available. 6.Cash flow accounting directs management’s focus on the optimum use of company assets in order to generate positive cash flows bearing in mind that cash is essential for the survival of an enterprise. In any organisation, a strong financial position is one which shows that a business has relatively little debt and large amounts of liquid assets in comparison to its current liabilities. Additionally, a strong cash balance generating with ease and efficiency from its operating activities further indicate financial strength. Large companies are therefore, mandated by law to prepare financial statements and it is in these that their performance is assessed. The users of financial statements are interested in solvency, the ability to pay debts and profitability, which creates equity. Management is also interested in these statements as it will assist them in improving the areas where performance is weak. Despite the argument presented thus far, it must be noted that â€Å"no man is an island.† This suggests that in isolation, a true understanding of a business’ performance cannot be attained by an examination of only the cash flow statement. When used in conjunction with the profit and loss account and the balance sheet, the cash flow statement gives shareholders and the other users of the financial statements the required information on viability, solvency, liquidity and the financial flexibility of a company at a specific time, essentially at the balance sheet date. Furthermore, the conjunctive use of the cash flow statements give an indication of the relationship between profitability and a company’s ability to generate cash, consequently, defining the quality of the profits reflected in the profit and loss account. Should one therefore, require an overall well calculated view of an organisation, no statement, be it profit and loss account, balance sheet or cash flow statement should be looked at in isolation. For example, in St.Lucia a new shopping plaza is on the verge of opening. Needless to say that Blue Sky Limited is now investing heavily in the refurbishment of the building in which it is to be housed. A close examination of Blue Sky Limited’s accounts would reveal large outflows with little inflows. It therefore becomes necessary to examine Blue Sky Limited’s cash flow accounts in conjunction with the profit and loss account and the balance sheet so that a more wholesome picture can be obtained. Simply put, â€Å"the cash flow statement is simply a part of the puzzle. Analysing it with the other statements can give you a more overall look at a company’s financial health† (Investopedia.com 2005). This notion is supported by Aharony et al 2003 in their study who posits that in order to understand which statement gives a better view of organisational performance, it becomes imperative to look at the â€Å"life cycle status† (LCS) of the of the business in question. Aharony et al therefore argue: Previous researchers identify four LCS’s: Start-up, maturity and decline or stagnation. At the start-up stage there are normally only a few assets in place. Growth opportunities constitute the major asset of the firm at that stage. Cash flow operation and the earnings are low, and there is a relatively great need for cash to finance the realization of these growth opportunities. At the growth stage there are more assets in place and some income is generated (Black, 1998). Sales and revenue growth rates are higher than average in the growth stage and so are investments in production facilities (Anthony and Ramesh, 1992). At the maturity stage firms experience low or no cash and needs are mostly satisfied by internal sources and at the decline or stagnant stage growth opportunities, if any, are likely to be limited, competition intensifies, and the firm’s financing costs are more expensive.(Aharony et al 2003) The implication of Aharony et al’s argument is that the cash flow statements may not necessarily be the best statement to look at a particular point in a business’ LSC because at certain points, liquidity and solvency may be low. At such points, therefore a business’ performance can be better understood by introspection of the profit and loss statement which relies heavily on accrual accounting or a combination with the balance sheet and cash flow statement. Consequently the stage of a business’ life cycle plays an important role in the understanding of a business’ performance. Despite its limitations e.g. its inability to express opinions whether or not expenditure was necessary of will be profitable, or fail to report on the cause of an increase in the firm’s receivables due to poor stock control or changes in policy, the cash flow statement remains the most detailed and accurate statement when reporting on a company’s liquidity/solvency. Therefore, in comparison to the profit and loss account, the cash flow statement definitely gives a better view of organisational performance, if for example, each statement; the cash flow statement and the profit and loss statement, is to be examined in isolation.

Evaluating Value Congruence in the Work Place

Evaluating Value Congruence in the Work Place Abstract This study re-examined the impact of personal and organizational values congruency on positive work outcomes and investigated the extent to which this relationship is affected by demographic variables. Data collection was used to validate those findings, lending additional credibility to the continuing importance of this phenomenon. Both personal values congruence and organizational values clarity were significantly related to commitment, satisfaction, motivation, anxiety, work stress, and ethics using a cross-sectional sample of managers from across the same organization set up. Gender, educational level, and functional area did not impact these relationships, although years of experience did make a difference to the finding on the final research processes being done. The term value congruence is generally intuitive when there is a match between employee and organization value systems, positive outcomes will result if the work ethics is put into order. This article will explain the benefits of value congruence, and show you how you can put value congruence to work in your organization. Introduction Acording to (Schein 2004 pg 535) Values are a critical elements of the organistional culture and leadership impacting both individual and organisational perfomance; it is tenadertively radicle that an organisation succeed in the global competetive arena without coherency of core values. Subatntiating on performance, brought about by advancement and tecchnolically advancement, professional networking and gglobolizatin mosst organisations require to cordinate to acquire relevant amrket share, customer demand for quick and quality services has imlicated how organistions does busness. With these essence each company creates and potrays it image and gudge by the customer on value received. Watson et al (2004) also argues that value congruence model is predominant research approach to the idead of personal and organisational fit. In the merit of values companys essential should absorb the banding concept and analyse judgement of want customers in the target market view them and impacts to the society. Customers rate sevices depending with the moment of truth when they purchase and consume a product or service. At such a juncture, customer-employee relations become a vital element for longterm benfit for both parties. On the othe hand (Barry Z Posner pg 536) relents that values are so deep seated tha nobody actually see values themselve manifest in opinions, desires fears and ttitudes whileenvisaged as pesonal, professional, organisational or societal. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES Reseach questions What effect does value congruence has in an organisation? How do values congrunce impact the cutomer-employee relations What are values congruence positive outcomes Both individuals and organizations have value systems that dictate their attitudes, behaviors, and the ways in which they allocate resources. Value congruence occurs when the value system of an employee coincides with the value system of an organization. Job satisfaction is a positive emotional experience associated with ones job. Satisfied employees are more productive and experience less stress than their employers. Organizational identification (branding) derives from an employees sense of belonging to the organization. Employees who feel like they belong are likely to be more committed to the organization, more productive, and more likely to engage in extra role behaviors helping behaviors that go above and beyond the duties of an employees position. Intent to stay is an employees intent to remain with the organization over some period of time. Intent to stay is contingent upon both job satisfaction and organizational identification. Although the link between value congruence and positive organizational outcomes has been firmly established, until recently it was not clear why this process takes place. Rather than directly causing positive outcomes, value congruence primarily leads to positive outcomes through the enhancement of communication and trust between the organization and the employee. (Impact of value congruence on customer employee-relations)Value Congruence affects Positive Outcomes Globaisation has widened up business transactions around the world, transfrer of skills and mixture on human cultural and socail attivities plays a major role at organisation operational leves.Demand for quality skill by employers and higher renumeration by emloyees inpacts to the product and service development to the customer. Motivtion quality trainings and retreats specifically with clear job descriptons negates perfomance in orgnisation. However, organsaitional politics and environmental policies might cause indifference among employess. Relaibility and cosistency on professionalism critically vandalised the basic approach to achieve organisation goals. Most employees perormance can be based on many years of experience and values e.g communication skills, analytical skills and interpersonal skills which constitute ability to achieve organisational targets and improve shareholder value.,At atermost moments training and skill addition by employees canbe consistently high at the ex pense of the employer, However in a similar study by Berlin Erogam Robert Linden (2004) argues that both private and public organisation exeriences financial dificulties thus find it hard pay employees achieve career in terms of increases in terms of pay or upward movement in the hierachy.this is critica as most of organisation companies are facing challenges e.g inflation rates, global warming and economical challenges When the value congruence between an employee and the organization is high, there tends to be high levels of trust and communication between the two parties. In many cases employees will show positive results when they receive managers boost and motivation which is practically how one manager develops a good rapport with the general employees. Ones values is determined by how one approaches his or her work. A good employee always (what determine perfomance is the level of customer satistfaction and motivation) makes sure that his or her performance at work is excellence. But contrary to normal work some employees need to be pushed in order to do the right thing. This entirely depends in ones attitude towards the job or the administration of that organization.(this document relates to organization outcome/Evaluate) It is paramount (this word means otherwise in relation to the pargraph) for any organization to find value addition to their work and also ways to motivate their employees in order to achieve positive results for their company.(is this a recommendation or suggestion) Values have been associated with job satisfaction, organizational commitment, flexibility to accept changes whenever it is instilled to an organization, job performance which is a replica of the effort being applied. (Crollick, 2004)-refrence and page Vibrantly organisation requires or must comprehensive reseach and embrace organisation culture ie internal gap bridging in basing communication elements, trainings, runmeration and capcity building) It is important to know (who to know) the role of values (what is the role of vlues or wat values) in the growth of the organization so that strategic solution is set to meticate any side factor which arises if such values are not placed in their right place. Values are the core of who really people are, thus if you master their needs at work place and fulfill them without struggle then definitely you will have passed the first hurdle towards work satisfaction. Some of the most critical decisions made by a manager determine the relationship between customers and the employees.(the lelement of roles and responsibilty in decision making, organisation structure) Good manager(is this a one mans task?) impacts positive virtues to the employees which lead to positive outcome at end. Values are moderate tests that show the general flow of growth and development of an organizational set up and a determinant for a company to measure success and profitability level over a given period of time, usually it is an annual forecast for any organization to carry out their internal assess of their performance. (Should be at introduction) paragraphs shoul be short and pricise This depends on the kind of working conditions given the resources are equitable to the kind of work an organization is doing. Managers acts as the planners and value setters thus the employees are just the final implementers of what is supposed to be done to meet their respective targets. (These require proof so quote at list an author and bring in the agument element of study) Practical Implications In various parts, ethnic orientations play a major rloe and afects employee relationsValue congruence (is about competency within the organisation and creates a strong corporate image, win market share through strardized positioning and quality diffrentiation. It also builds stakeholder value-prctical: profitality via archievd targets, trainings, good pay, education sponsorship, employees retreats, engaging in professional bodies) can be utilized to increase positive outcomes such as job satisfaction,(its not about employees rather customer satisfaction: also require a quote) identification with the organization, and intent to stay with the organization. There are several strategies that managers can use to maximize positive outcomes (VERILY REPEATED) that result from value congruence. Value congruence can be addressed during the hiring process (How? Then should have touch on Job discription). Match applicant value profiles with those of the organization in order to select employees with good value fit to the organization. Socialize new employees toward the cultural values of the organization.   Incorporate organizational values into new employee training and reinforce them throughout the on boarding period the extended process of assimilating new members into the organization. For current employees, focus on strategies(which strategies?) that directly impact trust and communication: Increase trust by being honest with employees about organizational and supervisor decision-making processes, ensuring that processes such as performance appraisal and distribution of resources are perceived as fair(reference pg 6-above first paragraph). Increase the benefits that result from good communication by ensuring frequent and open communication between management and employees, and among employees themselves. (Require quote from the scholars/refrence) Value congruence ACT as a concept for organisation growth in a competetive environment calls for exhobiarnt skills that should be adopted at the job interviews, internships etc) Throughout various stages (like? Be specific?) of employment, value congruence is a useful concept that managers can leverage to improve positive outcomes for both the organization and employees alike. When the values represent different organizational units, value level can be determine the extent to which a successful merger (this means different) can take place between the units Similar effects can demonstrated when comparisons are made between the values of an organization and those of its members. In such cases, value level has been found to indicate overall happiness and satisfaction with the organization. It has also been significantly correlated with employee performance, commitment intention to remain with the organization, and actual turnover increases. When the values being considered are those of potential employees or applicants, evidence suggests that congruence with the values of an organization will influence whether individuals choose to join that particular organization for the better output capacity. Therefore, this issue has relevance for research on the broader issue of an individuals fit with an organization. Additional processes can be examined by comparing values or sets of values across different time periods. Because an organizations culture is reflected in the collective values of its employees cultural change can be assessed when unit or organizational values are compared across two or more points in time.(inter departmental competiveness) Furthermore, when values at each of these points are compared with the values of potential agents of such change e.g., having new management, a different generation of employees, etc. the locus of change can also be investigated. Similar issues can be explored at the individual level. That is by comparing the values of employees across different points in time can indicate their degree of socialization. As with organizational values, sources of socialization can be examined by comparing employee values at these points with the values of potential socializing agents. (Cooper, 2007) (change and change reistance) It is also appropriate to compare values or sets of values between individuals. Research has shown that value congruence between employees and their supervisors is significantly related to employee satisfaction and commitment ratings of employees, and supervisors consideration, success, and competence. Interpersonal value congruence is even thought to be an important factor in determining whether peoples lives will be altered by chance encounters with other Despite its wide applicability, there is a surprising absence of research on how value congruence should be conceptualized and measured. The present study examined a number of such issues not previously addressed in this literature. Some have used unsquared indexes, whereas others have used squared indexes. Each of these approaches makes a different assumption about the dynamics of interaction. An unsquared index assumes that a unit difference in values is equally influential regardless of the overall level of value difference. A squared index gives greater proportional weight to large unit value differences and is consistent with a theory that assumes that individuals dislike large discrepancies between expectation and occurrence, but actually react positively to small discrepancies of this type. A final issue that has not been treated in previous value studies is the potential for spurious association inherent in certain indexes of value congruence. Johns points out that the type of indexes used to measure value congruence can be highly correlated with their component value measures. Thus, an index of value congruence between a supervisor and a subordinate e.g., subordinates value score minus supervisors value score could be highly correlated with the subordinates value score. Given such a high correlation, if the index was related to subordinate satisfaction, it would not be clear whether this relationship was attributable to the effect of value congruence or the direct effect of the subordinates value level. In such cases, the relationship can be clarified by statistically removing the effect of the subordinates value score from the congruence index. This study examined four major issues in the measurement of work value ethics: The effect of different methods of constructing value congruence indexes, the use of general versus specific value measures, the use of actual versus squared indexes, and the effect of correcting indexes for correlation with their component measures. Significance of Co-Worker Value Congruence The lack of research in many cases undermines the proper investigation on the subject of workers relationship with one another. Thus, increasing popularity of team based organizational structures. That is why work ethics is important for the employees to make them work in any environment which is conducive and receptive for them. These reasons in general derive from literature on group and interpersonal behavior and research on value congruence, as it is being expounded further in the work. (Asumption)The senior executives in many cases pay very little attention to the values and beliefs of lower level employees as the former incorrectly believe that peoples culture, organization culture. The findings are helpful to managers as it illustrates that organization members attach values to the organization as a whole, but also to subunits of the organization. Human resource generalists can also gain from the study findings (which studyor by who and does it apply anaway?) as it builds on the common practice of socializing new employees through planned socialization tactics. (Gray, 2005) However, there has not been any focus in the literature on whether congruence could change during individuals tenure with the organization and if certain events could alter congruence.(a recmendtion/suggestion/you view) The findings from this study suggest that value congruence is not fixed and that events perceived to change an employees sense of congruence can have behavioral implications. For a company in an industry as dynamic as commercial airlines,(is this an examlple?) understanding how events could decrease employees sense of congruence should have paramount importance. There are also implications for human resource generalists predictions for employee attrition. The findings (why arent you quoting authors if this is desk data?) supporting multiple types of value congruence indicate that employees may determine congruence based on very different criteria. In making changes to organizational characteristics, caution must be given to not altering characteristics that may be important to employees values. (Albrecht, 2010) Literature Review The following approach is used to come up with the best information in regard to this shift of events. In this approach, individuals have more positive attitudes simply because they interact with similar others, rather than because the organization or leader provides conditions that allow opportunities for value fulfillment. Although most research to date has examined the sharing of attitudes or personality characteristics, the role of value congruence in interpersonal heterogeneity may in fact be of more importance. Values may be defined as beliefs about the way an individual ought to behave. As such, values represent core beliefs about what should be done, and are related to a broad network of more specific beliefs, perceptions, and attitudes. Because values are linked to modes of behavior, individuals are better able to predict the behavior of others with whom they share values . Likewise, individuals with congruent values should have greater agreement about what behaviors are important in the workplace Ambiguity and tension associated with working together should be reduced, thus increasing satisfaction and potentially enhancing performance on routine tasks of the type under study here. It provides partial support for these proposed relationships with their findings of relationships between co-worker goal congruence and satisfaction and withdrawal behaviors. Individuals with congruent values also have a common system of communication. This tends to facilitate interactions by decreasing communication noise and reducing stimulus overload. Value congruence may also affect how often people choose to communicate with each other. (Malphurs, 2004) found that similarity in age and tenure was positively related to frequency of communication, and this effect may well extend to value congruence. Alternatively, value congruence may reduce the need for communication in the workplace. As noted earlier, it increases the predictability of the behavior of others and fosters agreement about what behaviors are important in the workplace. Increased predictability and agreement may actually decrease the need for communication in the process of task accomplishment. Value congruence may also affect interpersonal relationships through its influence on the perception of environmental cues. In a study of perception, (Williams, 2002), found that individuals work values had a significant impact on their interpretation of environmental stimuli. It is therefore likely that employees with congruent values will place similar interpretations on events in their immediate work environment. Given (relating to) the relevance of environmental cues for understanding individuals attitudes and reactions in the workplace, such shared perceptions could remove important sources of disagreement between employees and further facilitate their interpersonal interactions. Given that research has to date not found entirely consistent effects in the domain of group composition or value congruence, the presence of moderators in the relationships between congruence and work outcomes must be considered. It is essential to note that work outcomes extend beyond quantitative measures of productivity to also include performance dimensions important to the organization, such as supervisor ratings of work habits, job-related attitudes, attendance, and coming to work on time.(basing on org perfomnce) With regard to the outcomes of attitudes and withdrawal behaviors, the literature tends to be somewhat more consistent than for performance, however, much of the similarity-attraction research was performed in the short-term environment of the laboratory. In particular, for these types of outcomes, we might expect that value congruence may not have a uniform effect over time. (Dunn, 2005) Value Congruence, Work Attitudes, and Attendance One reason for this wide scope of operation is that values are relatively enduring constructs that describe good virtues of individuals as well as organizations in their own set up. Thus, depending upon the source of various value measures, their comparisons can apply to a wide variety of individual and organizational level phenomena including intra organizational power, cultural change, organizational restructuring, recruiting, socialization satisfaction, interpersonal relationships, work culture and turnover. When the values or sets of values being compared are obtained for different levels of the same organization, value congruence can indicate which organizational units posses greater amounts of power and which are most able to define the critical uncertainties for the organization on a given issue which needs to be tackled before it becomes a great problem in the future prosperity of the organization. Similar effects can demonstrate when the two collateral organizations are made between the values of an organization and those of its members. In such cases, value congruence has been found to indicate overall happiness and satisfaction with the organization. It has also been significantly correlated with employee performance, commitment intention to remain with the organization, and actual turnover. When the values being considered are those of potential employees or applicants, evidence suggests that congruence with the values of an organization will influence whether individuals choose to join that particular organization. Furthermore, it is paramount when values at each of these points are compared with the values of potential agents of such change that can be investigated. Similar issues can be explored at the individual level when the need arises. That is comparing the values of employees across different points in time can indicate their quantity of work depends on the effort and support of than whole organization. (Albrecht, 2001) As with organizational values fluctuates, it is the indicator that one area is not at par with the rest. Thus the need for mutual operation and total revamp of the organization set up so that the sources of socialization can be examined by comparing employee values at these points with the values of potential socializing agents. It requires proper measures to be undertaken in order to cope with the challenges discussed on these research paper. Conclusion The value congruence in these contents is the great determining factor to measure the level of development of an organization. Thus, unless the whole system functions together nothing good can be achieved in any organization. The future of any organization depends on very well set up plan of work which is a blue print to what each one is required to do in a span of time. For any organization that records positive growth their secret lies on the attitude they impart to their employees which includes motivation, good salary pay, conducive work environment, well set goals, achievable targets and honesty employees. Therefore, whenever there is no discrepancy always work is performed to the expectation of the employers. Value, thus value congruence is a germ which species up the positive results of an organization. The study, therefore affirms that there is a crucial need for a value congruence to determine the performance level of an organization. In that a positive results comes with the effort applied on value addition measures being mastered across the organizational set up. The emphasis is in how the value congruence in the work place is achieved using the available resources both human and financial resources which are the driving force towards the achievements of the goals.(introduction) Methodolgy The information given in these research have put it out well how the value congruence plays a major part in the development of any successful company depends entirely on the management team and all the employees working together for the betterment of their organization without any group dragging another well function body. Thus, it has sent ices on the positive virtues that are required in order to achieve the positive desired results on the organization. The exercise requires a dedicate team of employees who have positive attitude towards their work and the good relationship they have cultivated together with the senior management and the entire organization as a working entity. This is aspiring to produce best results by creating a decent work environment among their workmates. The best thing that any individual employee can over to the organization is nothing less than the expansion of the organization to create more employment to many people to improve the living standards of all people.

Daniel Defoe and Robinson Crusoe :: Defoe Robinson Crusoe Essays

Daniel Defoe was an extraordinary man. Although he never had the benefit of a university education, he spoke six languages and was able to read even more. His curriculum included having been a government spy, a shopkeeper, and a journalist. As the latter, he was employed by both major parties. Of course, serving two lord is impossible, so after he got into trouble with both of these parties, he turned to writing as another means of living. The first major difference between Defoe's work and most other books dating from this time is that Robinson Crusoe is really entertaining, quite exhilarating and at times even amusing to read. This is in sharp contrast to most contemporary novels which stuck to a Spartan diet of unreality and dullness, their only charm lying in the complete strangeness to anything human. Basically, most stories at the time were chronicles of wonderful, magical events, not even attempting to resemble human life at all. Robinson Crusoe was one of the first few books to have characters with whom a reader could actually identify. Therefore, it was very popular and this idea of recognition of oneself in a character in a book is nowadays only discussed when it fails, implying that it now has become a natural 'recipe' for writing any book.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Most of today's popsongs become 'hits' due to a hook; a melodic chorus or instrumental piece which basically does not need to convey any meaning whatsoever. Its only function is to keep the listener listening. Defoe also had grasped the idea of a hook. Only his is fairly bigger, namely about 10 pages, than your average popsong-hook, which contains 4-5 words, if any... For sometimes the lyrics are degraded to a repeated monosyllabic sound. Defoe put this theory into practice in Robinson Crusoe. First, he has Robinson's father lecture him on `the middle station' which is apparently `the best state in the world.' Of course, this little section is only needed to charm his middle-class audience. By refusing his father's ideas, Robinson already seems like an ungrateful son in the eyes of the reader.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Defoe adds more Christian morals as Robinson sinks deeper into sin. He drinks his repentance away after his first encounter with a storm, he refuses to listen to the captain who tells him 'you ought to take this for a plain and visible token that you are not to be a seafaring man.

The Crucible: Evil And Greed In Man :: Essay on The Crucible

The Crucible: Evil and Greed In Man High personal, acquisitions, evil desires and massive greed took part in shortening the fuse of the chaotic corruption of the Salem witch trials. Amidst the quiet and peaceful period of the Puritan era in America, not everything seemed as they were. Disorder and sin heightened the animosity and deteriorated the very center of a solemn and strong virtuous society. The Puritan belief in the basic evil of man is evident in Arthur Millers The Crucible through the actions of Abigail Williams and Reverend Parris. The main character who first brings forth this ruckus is Abigail Williams. Her desire directs towards John Procter, a married man, and she does anything to win his heart. She even tries to put a hex on his wife, Elizabeth Procter. When Betty awakens and confronts Abigail, about the spell, "You did, you did! You drank a charm to kill John Procters wife" (Miller 19). This quote allows the reader to become aware of the severity of Abbys ruthlessness. Her loathing of Mrs. Procter goes to such great lengths that she would go beyond the point of extremities. An example of her demonic acts, is when she mutilates her stomach with a sewing needle and claims it to be Elizabeth Procters voodoo spell. "and struck two inches in the flesh of her belly, he draw a needle outshe testify it were your familiar spirit pushed it in." (Miller 71). From this, it can be conceived that she would disastrously knock down any obstacle to get what she wanted. Another character who brings greed upon themselves is the Reverend Parris. He uses his high social status as a priest as an excuse to obtain that of which he considers is a requirement for such a prestigious man as he believes to be. In an argument between Reverend Parris and Giles Cory, Giles disagrees on Parris having ownership of the chapel house and the amount of money he gets for his services. "Mr. Cory, you will look far for a man of my kind at sixty pound a year!" (Miller 28). His selfish self-centered ways are so perverse that he would take advantage of the Lord for his own prerogative. Reverend Parriss voracity overtakes him so much that it consumes him into callow motives. In a quarrel between John Procter and Reverend Parris, John brought up past preachings of Reverend Parris repeatedly demanding things of small detail. "But Parris came, and for twenty week he preachin nothin but golden candlesticks until he had

Pathology and Contemporary Treatment Alternatives

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, asthma is a complex disease on the rise in the United States. Most at risk include poor or inner city minorities that present with inordinately high rates of mortality resulting from the condition (CDC, 2005). Asthma may also be on the rise due to environmental factors including increased pollution and exposure to environmental toxins that may affect lung capacity (CDC, 2005; Hwang et. al, 2005; Yang, et. al, 1997; Wickman, et. al, 2003). Asthma is a serious, potentially life threatening condition for the millions of sufferers worldwide. Doctors are still working to determine the cause of this disease and finding new ways to treat it. While there is no cure for asthma yet, researchers have uncovered multiple treatment alternatives that help patients with asthma effectively control their condition. Education, public response and intervention are all critical success factors for predicting the quality of life for patients with asthma now and in the future. Research supports the use of a defined set of treatment protocols for assisting patients with asthma lead a better quality of life. The basis for treatment, anatomy and physiology of the respiratory tract and pathology of asthma in patients are all discussed in greater detail below. Normal Lung Function and Respiratory System The human body has two lungs located on either side of the chest. The lungs functions include passing oxygen from outside the body into our bloodstream and releasing waste materials in the form of carbon dioxide back into the environment (Gershwin & Klingelhofer, 1992). During each breath the body inhales oxygen and exhales carbon dioxide (Polk, 18). Oxygen combines with carbohydrates and fat in the body to product energy. During the process of creating energy water and carbon dioxide are formed that are expelled through breathing. The lungs consist of several anatomical structures including the bronchial tubes that enable expansion and constriction of the muscles in the lungs and chest. These tubes consist of muscles that allow air to pass deep in to the lungs. Bronchial tubes consistently change width, increasing in girth as an individual inhales and becoming narrower upon exhalation. In a person with a well functioning respiratory system all parts of the airway function synergistically to ensure maximum intake of oxygen and exhalation of carbon dioxide with each breath. Air enters the body through the nose and mouth. It passes through the pharynx, larynx and trachea, all important parts of the airway (Polk, 18). The noses and sinuses act as conditioners adjusting the air temperature as it passes through other structures in the airway. The pharynx or back of the throat allows liquids and solids entering the airway to â€Å"drop out before entering the lungs† (Polk, 19). Likewise the larynx helps prevent other unwanted particles in the air from entering the lungs (Polk, 19). It is here that the body's cough reflex lies. If something unwanted is present in the air being inhaled, the larynx will stimulate a cough reflex to help expel the object. While the larynx isn't the only trigger for a cough reflect it is very important to the entire breathing process (Polk, 19). When a person inhales, the chest muscles in the body contract allowing the ribs to separate slightly. Air is then drawn into the lungs. The opposite happens when an individual exhales, allowing air to forcefully come out of the lungs. The abdomen is also involved in breathing. The abdomen attaches to the front and back of the ribs, pushing them up and out when breathing. Breathing thus incorporates the chest and abdomen. The more a person engages all the muscles and organs involved in respiration including the abdomen, the better able they are to take a full breath of air. In times of old doctors ascribed asthma to anyone having difficulty breathing regardless of the cause; during the 20th century however researchers refined asthma to include difficult breathing â€Å"Because of a problem that begins in the bronchial tubes of the lungs† (Polk, 15). Asthma is a complex disorder that doctors are still working to fully understand. While doctors have uncovered many potential causes for asthma, they are still not certain what exactly causes it and how to prevent it 100 percent in all patients. In patients with asthma, the ability of the bronchial tubes to adjust their width is often diminished, resulting in difficulty breathing. Children are often at increased risk for developing asthma, as their bronchial tubes are narrower to begin with than adult tubes, thus less change in width is evident even in healthy lungs. Exercise induced asthma is a form of asthma that results when the air present in the nose and sinuses isn't prepared appropriately to pass through other parts of the airway (Polk, 19). Normally this form of asthma is easier to treat than severe forms of asthma whose cause is unknown (Hogshead, 1989; Guyton, 1991). During a bronchospasm attach involuntary spasms may prevent lung tissue from expanding to their normal size. Air can become trapped in the lungs. Cellular and structural changes often occur within the airway and lungs of patients with asthma, including thickening of the airway wall and inflammation (Saetta & Turato, 2001). Normally as air passes through the lungs the bronchiols or airways get smaller. In a patient with uncontrolled asthma however, the sides of the airways typically become enlarged or inflamed (CDC, 2005). During an acute attack, the muscles or bronchiols surrounding the airways constrict, thus reducing the amount of air a person can pass in and out of their lungs (CDC, 2005). Once this constriction begins, mucus starts forming in the airways, causing even greater constriction and distress. Typical symptoms associated with an asthma attack include wheezing, chest pain and tightness, coughing and difficulty breathing (CDC, 2005). No one is immune from asthma. Children, adults and the elderly are all at risk. Some people are more at risk than others including people who smoke, those with seasonal allergies and anyone with recurring acute respiratory infections (CDC, 2005). Signs of asthma include physical qualities of the disease a patient, family member or doctor can easily identify such as dyspnea (trouble breathing) (Polk, 7). Symptoms include complaints generally associated with the condition, and may include headaches or chest pain, skin flushing and itching (Polk, 8). Dyspnea results from multiple conditions other than asthma including infections, allergies, foreign bodies present in the airway and associated factors (Polk, 8). It is important a clinician differentiate between asthma and other causes of the disease. Basis Contemporary Treatments For Managing Asthma The National Asthma Education and Prevention Panel consistently work with doctors to develop contemporary treatments to manage asthma (Moonie, et. al, 2005). Many of these treatments are based on empirical research that supports reduction of patients symptoms and prevention of chronic attacks. The goal of contemporary asthma care and treatment includes â€Å"control of asthma and good quality of life for asthmatic patients† (Gaga, et. al, 80). The basis for much of contemporary care is empirical based research, though trends are changing in an attempt to encourage doctors to improve patient awareness and education. Many asthma drugs historically are administered through inhalation. Inhalers are often prescribed â€Å"on an empirical basis rather than on evidence based awareness: (Virchow, 24). Much of the asthma management guidelines currently available offer â€Å"non-specific advice regarding inhaler choice† (Virchow, 24). As such it is important that GP work with patients to decide what the ideal inhaler is for all patients involved. The ideal inhaler according to Virchow (2005) is one that (1) is breath activated, â€Å"releasing medication only when all prerequisites for successful inhalation are met, (2) has a low intrinsic airflow resistance so children and elderly patients may use it and (3) is one that provides a flow-independent deposition of drugs in the lungs as well as feedback that reassures patients whether the drugs has been inhaled properly (24). Newman (2005) suggests the pressured metered-doze inhaler or pMDI delivers asthma medications in a reliable â€Å"multi-dose presentation† (1177). Key components of this devices help determine the amount of drug delivered to the patient. The researcher further suggests that pMDIs can be developed that are breath actuated and coordinated with â€Å"spray-velocity modifiers† to help patients unable to use â€Å"conventional press and breathe pMDI's correctly† (Newman, 1177). Modern or contemporary pMDI's according to Newman should also contain non-ozone depleting propellants, a sentiment confirmed by Virchow (2005) as well. Patients with severe refractory asthma require more comprehensive treatment. High-doses of inhaled corticosteroids are often insufficient for treating this form of asthma. Most require contemporary treatments including oral corticosteroid administration and use of immunosuppressants (Sano, Adachi, Kiuchi & Miyamoto, 2005). Chronic use of these drugs however present a high risk for adverse side effects. A study conducted by Sano, et. al (2005) suggests that nebulized sodium cromoglycate â€Å"is expected to be a new second-line therapeutic option in severe asthma† (1). Gaga, et. al (2005) suggests that many doctors are not achieving good quality of life and control of asthma for patients. Their study of treatment outcomes for asthmatic patients in specialized care suggests that contemporary treatments should include more patient education combined with increased use of LABAs (Long-acting beta2-agonists) and leukotriene antagonists to help prevent bronchoconstriction and improve quality of life for patients. Despite multiple contemporary treatment choices, managing acute severe asthma attacks still present a tremendous health challenge to health care professionals (Barnard, 2005). Contemporary guidelines for treating acute emergency attacks currently include treatment with oxygen and inhaled beta 2 agonists, which can be administered continuously to help preserve life in acute patients (Barnard, 532). Patients discharged after such treatment should also engage in review of current medications and consider â€Å"a short course of oral steroids, a written asthma action plan and detailed advice about deterioration that may occur within 48 hours† (Barnard, 533). Butz et. al, (2005) are among a growing body of contemporary researchers that suggests that self management and patient education are critical success factors for treating patients with asthma in modern society. Their studies suggested home based educational programs that focus on accurate symptom identification and demonstration of â€Å"asthma medication delivery services† may improve patient quality of life and assist children with asthma and asthma like conditions (Butz, et. al, 190). Delaronde, Peruccio & Bauer (2005) find that â€Å"individualized telephonic case management† from registered nurses specifically trained in contemporary asthma treatment may improve asthma medication use and subsequent quality of life for patients with asthma (361). This research correlates with a growing body of evidence supporting patient education and direct support as practical contemporary treatment practices. The basis for much of contemporary treatment lies in the gold standards or clinical practice guidelines outlined by the National Asthma Education and Prevention Program's Expert Panel (CDC, 2005). These standards offer patients and health care practitioners specific guidelines for recognizing, diagnosis, treating and providing ongoing care to asthmatic patients. Because asthma is a difficult disease to diagnose, clinicians should utilize multiple diagnostic tools to determine whether airflow obstruction in patients results from asthma or other underlying conditions. Doctors should also acquire a comprehensive medical and family history and attempt to quantify the severity of a person's condition (CDC, 2005). Other contemporary diagnostic criteria helpful for assessing a patients condition include lung function tests (also referred to as spirometry) (CDC, 2005). Because there is no cure for asthma at this time doctors must work to improve the quality of life for patients presenting with asthma as effectively treat acute attacks. Doctors also work with patients to prevent attacks and recurrent episodes. Not one treatment modality works for all people because every case of asthma is unique. Because of this doctors often use various medications including injections, oral medications, vapors and inhalers. Use of inhalers to expand airflow is currently one of the most common and effective long-term treatment choices for patients with asthma. Contemporary long lasting medical treatments should include use of corticosteroids to help reduce inflammation in the lungs and airways. Most patients will inhale these medicines or take them orally. Long acting beta2-agonists are also identified as effective long-term treatments for patients with asthma. While inhalers, nebulizers and other medications all serve the asthmatic population, education should also form the foundation for modern treatment practices. Multiple researchers have concluded that patient education is effective for improving the quality of life in patients with asthma. Education also ensures that patients understand how to use their medications and do use them to prevent acute attacks. Education may be particularly beneficial for children by helping them adopt healthy behaviors early on that can help control their condition. Asthma is a complex disease involving structural and physiological components. Patients with asthma face a life long and often debilitating condition that under severe circumstances may result in increased morbidity. Fortunately there are many treatments currently available that effectively manage this condition. Contemporary management and treatment of asthma is based on empirical research that suggests multiple forms of medication for preventing and treating acute asthma attacks. The most common forms of treatment include corticosteroid administration through inhalers or oral forms. There are other equally effective medical treatments however that may work well for patients depending on the severity of their illness. No two patients are alike with respect to the condition thus treatment must be tailored to the individual. New research suggests that doctors and patients focus on prevention and education to help improve patients quality of life and experience of their disease (West, 1990). Education that starts early, as when patients are children, is likely to be more effective than education that starts years after an individual has attempted to manage their disease using other methods. Adequate evidence suggests that the manner of delivery for education does not impact a patients success rate. Thus information may be distributed in person, in the home or even over the telephone if necessary. The currently body of literature available suggest that education in the classroom may also be an important avenue for teaching prevention and treatment in the future (West, 1990). It is important that researchers and doctors continue exploring new avenues for treating and preventing this insidious disease. Pathology and Contemporary Treatment Alternatives According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, asthma is a complex disease on the rise in the United States. Most at risk include poor or inner city minorities that present with inordinately high rates of mortality resulting from the condition (CDC, 2005). Asthma may also be on the rise due to environmental factors including increased pollution and exposure to environmental toxins that may affect lung capacity (CDC, 2005; Hwang et. al, 2005; Yang, et. al, 1997; Wickman, et. al, 2003). Asthma is a serious, potentially life threatening condition for the millions of sufferers worldwide. Doctors are still working to determine the cause of this disease and finding new ways to treat it. While there is no cure for asthma yet, researchers have uncovered multiple treatment alternatives that help patients with asthma effectively control their condition. Education, public response and intervention are all critical success factors for predicting the quality of life for patients with asthma now and in the future. Research supports the use of a defined set of treatment protocols for assisting patients with asthma lead a better quality of life. The basis for treatment, anatomy and physiology of the respiratory tract and pathology of asthma in patients are all discussed in greater detail below. Normal Lung Function and Respiratory System The human body has two lungs located on either side of the chest. The lungs functions include passing oxygen from outside the body into our bloodstream and releasing waste materials in the form of carbon dioxide back into the environment (Gershwin & Klingelhofer, 1992). During each breath the body inhales oxygen and exhales carbon dioxide (Polk, 18). Oxygen combines with carbohydrates and fat in the body to product energy. During the process of creating energy water and carbon dioxide are formed that are expelled through breathing. The lungs consist of several anatomical structures including the bronchial tubes that enable expansion and constriction of the muscles in the lungs and chest. These tubes consist of muscles that allow air to pass deep in to the lungs. Bronchial tubes consistently change width, increasing in girth as an individual inhales and becoming narrower upon exhalation. In a person with a well functioning respiratory system all parts of the airway function synergistically to ensure maximum intake of oxygen and exhalation of carbon dioxide with each breath. Air enters the body through the nose and mouth. It passes through the pharynx, larynx and trachea, all important parts of the airway (Polk, 18). The noses and sinuses act as conditioners adjusting the air temperature as it passes through other structures in the airway. The pharynx or back of the throat allows liquids and solids entering the airway to â€Å"drop out before entering the lungs† (Polk, 19). Likewise the larynx helps prevent other unwanted particles in the air from entering the lungs (Polk, 19). It is here that the body's cough reflex lies. If something unwanted is present in the air being inhaled, the larynx will stimulate a cough reflex to help expel the object. While the larynx isn't the only trigger for a cough reflect it is very important to the entire breathing process (Polk, 19). When a person inhales, the chest muscles in the body contract allowing the ribs to separate slightly. Air is then drawn into the lungs. The opposite happens when an individual exhales, allowing air to forcefully come out of the lungs. The abdomen is also involved in breathing. The abdomen attaches to the front and back of the ribs, pushing them up and out when breathing. Breathing thus incorporates the chest and abdomen. The more a person engages all the muscles and organs involved in respiration including the abdomen, the better able they are to take a full breath of air. In times of old doctors ascribed asthma to anyone having difficulty breathing regardless of the cause; during the 20th century however researchers refined asthma to include difficult breathing â€Å"Because of a problem that begins in the bronchial tubes of the lungs† (Polk, 15). Asthma is a complex disorder that doctors are still working to fully understand. While doctors have uncovered many potential causes for asthma, they are still not certain what exactly causes it and how to prevent it 100 percent in all patients. In patients with asthma, the ability of the bronchial tubes to adjust their width is often diminished, resulting in difficulty breathing. Children are often at increased risk for developing asthma, as their bronchial tubes are narrower to begin with than adult tubes, thus less change in width is evident even in healthy lungs. Exercise induced asthma is a form of asthma that results when the air present in the nose and sinuses isn't prepared appropriately to pass through other parts of the airway (Polk, 19). Normally this form of asthma is easier to treat than severe forms of asthma whose cause is unknown (Hogshead, 1989; Guyton, 1991). During a bronchospasm attach involuntary spasms may prevent lung tissue from expanding to their normal size. Air can become trapped in the lungs. Cellular and structural changes often occur within the airway and lungs of patients with asthma, including thickening of the airway wall and inflammation (Saetta & Turato, 2001). Normally as air passes through the lungs the bronchiols or airways get smaller. In a patient with uncontrolled asthma however, the sides of the airways typically become enlarged or inflamed (CDC, 2005). During an acute attack, the muscles or bronchiols surrounding the airways constrict, thus reducing the amount of air a person can pass in and out of their lungs (CDC, 2005). Once this constriction begins, mucus starts forming in the airways, causing even greater constriction and distress. Typical symptoms associated with an asthma attack include wheezing, chest pain and tightness, coughing and difficulty breathing (CDC, 2005). No one is immune from asthma. Children, adults and the elderly are all at risk. Some people are more at risk than others including people who smoke, those with seasonal allergies and anyone with recurring acute respiratory infections (CDC, 2005). Signs of asthma include physical qualities of the disease a patient, family member or doctor can easily identify such as dyspnea (trouble breathing) (Polk, 7). Symptoms include complaints generally associated with the condition, and may include headaches or chest pain, skin flushing and itching (Polk, 8). Dyspnea results from multiple conditions other than asthma including infections, allergies, foreign bodies present in the airway and associated factors (Polk, 8). It is important a clinician differentiate between asthma and other causes of the disease. Basis Contemporary Treatments For Managing Asthma The National Asthma Education and Prevention Panel consistently work with doctors to develop contemporary treatments to manage asthma (Moonie, et. al, 2005). Many of these treatments are based on empirical research that supports reduction of patients symptoms and prevention of chronic attacks. The goal of contemporary asthma care and treatment includes â€Å"control of asthma and good quality of life for asthmatic patients† (Gaga, et. al, 80). The basis for much of contemporary care is empirical based research, though trends are changing in an attempt to encourage doctors to improve patient awareness and education. Many asthma drugs historically are administered through inhalation. Inhalers are often prescribed â€Å"on an empirical basis rather than on evidence based awareness: (Virchow, 24). Much of the asthma management guidelines currently available offer â€Å"non-specific advice regarding inhaler choice† (Virchow, 24). As such it is important that GP work with patients to decide what the ideal inhaler is for all patients involved. The ideal inhaler according to Virchow (2005) is one that (1) is breath activated, â€Å"releasing medication only when all prerequisites for successful inhalation are met, (2) has a low intrinsic airflow resistance so children and elderly patients may use it and (3) is one that provides a flow-independent deposition of drugs in the lungs as well as feedback that reassures patients whether the drugs has been inhaled properly (24). Newman (2005) suggests the pressured metered-doze inhaler or pMDI delivers asthma medications in a reliable â€Å"multi-dose presentation† (1177). Key components of this devices help determine the amount of drug delivered to the patient. The researcher further suggests that pMDIs can be developed that are breath actuated and coordinated with â€Å"spray-velocity modifiers† to help patients unable to use â€Å"conventional press and breathe pMDI's correctly† (Newman, 1177). Modern or contemporary pMDI's according to Newman should also contain non-ozone depleting propellants, a sentiment confirmed by Virchow (2005) as well. Patients with severe refractory asthma require more comprehensive treatment. High-doses of inhaled corticosteroids are often insufficient for treating this form of asthma. Most require contemporary treatments including oral corticosteroid administration and use of immunosuppressants (Sano, Adachi, Kiuchi & Miyamoto, 2005). Chronic use of these drugs however present a high risk for adverse side effects. A study conducted by Sano, et. al (2005) suggests that nebulized sodium cromoglycate â€Å"is expected to be a new second-line therapeutic option in severe asthma† (1). Gaga, et. al (2005) suggests that many doctors are not achieving good quality of life and control of asthma for patients. Their study of treatment outcomes for asthmatic patients in specialized care suggests that contemporary treatments should include more patient education combined with increased use of LABAs (Long-acting beta2-agonists) and leukotriene antagonists to help prevent bronchoconstriction and improve quality of life for patients. Despite multiple contemporary treatment choices, managing acute severe asthma attacks still present a tremendous health challenge to health care professionals (Barnard, 2005). Contemporary guidelines for treating acute emergency attacks currently include treatment with oxygen and inhaled beta 2 agonists, which can be administered continuously to help preserve life in acute patients (Barnard, 532). Patients discharged after such treatment should also engage in review of current medications and consider â€Å"a short course of oral steroids, a written asthma action plan and detailed advice about deterioration that may occur within 48 hours† (Barnard, 533). Butz et. al, (2005) are among a growing body of contemporary researchers that suggests that self management and patient education are critical success factors for treating patients with asthma in modern society. Their studies suggested home based educational programs that focus on accurate symptom identification and demonstration of â€Å"asthma medication delivery services† may improve patient quality of life and assist children with asthma and asthma like conditions (Butz, et. al, 190). Delaronde, Peruccio & Bauer (2005) find that â€Å"individualized telephonic case management† from registered nurses specifically trained in contemporary asthma treatment may improve asthma medication use and subsequent quality of life for patients with asthma (361). This research correlates with a growing body of evidence supporting patient education and direct support as practical contemporary treatment practices. The basis for much of contemporary treatment lies in the gold standards or clinical practice guidelines outlined by the National Asthma Education and Prevention Program's Expert Panel (CDC, 2005). These standards offer patients and health care practitioners specific guidelines for recognizing, diagnosis, treating and providing ongoing care to asthmatic patients. Because asthma is a difficult disease to diagnose, clinicians should utilize multiple diagnostic tools to determine whether airflow obstruction in patients results from asthma or other underlying conditions. Doctors should also acquire a comprehensive medical and family history and attempt to quantify the severity of a person's condition (CDC, 2005). Other contemporary diagnostic criteria helpful for assessing a patients condition include lung function tests (also referred to as spirometry) (CDC, 2005). Because there is no cure for asthma at this time doctors must work to improve the quality of life for patients presenting with asthma as effectively treat acute attacks. Doctors also work with patients to prevent attacks and recurrent episodes. Not one treatment modality works for all people because every case of asthma is unique. Because of this doctors often use various medications including injections, oral medications, vapors and inhalers. Use of inhalers to expand airflow is currently one of the most common and effective long-term treatment choices for patients with asthma. Contemporary long lasting medical treatments should include use of corticosteroids to help reduce inflammation in the lungs and airways. Most patients will inhale these medicines or take them orally. Long acting beta2-agonists are also identified as effective long-term treatments for patients with asthma. While inhalers, nebulizers and other medications all serve the asthmatic population, education should also form the foundation for modern treatment practices. Multiple researchers have concluded that patient education is effective for improving the quality of life in patients with asthma. Education also ensures that patients understand how to use their medications and do use them to prevent acute attacks. Education may be particularly beneficial for children by helping them adopt healthy behaviors early on that can help control their condition. Asthma is a complex disease involving structural and physiological components. Patients with asthma face a life long and often debilitating condition that under severe circumstances may result in increased morbidity. Fortunately there are many treatments currently available that effectively manage this condition. Contemporary management and treatment of asthma is based on empirical research that suggests multiple forms of medication for preventing and treating acute asthma attacks. The most common forms of treatment include corticosteroid administration through inhalers or oral forms. There are other equally effective medical treatments however that may work well for patients depending on the severity of their illness. No two patients are alike with respect to the condition thus treatment must be tailored to the individual. New research suggests that doctors and patients focus on prevention and education to help improve patients quality of life and experience of their disease (West, 1990). Education that starts early, as when patients are children, is likely to be more effective than education that starts years after an individual has attempted to manage their disease using other methods. Adequate evidence suggests that the manner of delivery for education does not impact a patients success rate. Thus information may be distributed in person, in the home or even over the telephone if necessary. The currently body of literature available suggest that education in the classroom may also be an important avenue for teaching prevention and treatment in the future (West, 1990). It is important that researchers and doctors continue exploring new avenues for treating and preventing this insidious disease.